Jump to content

List of emperors of the Ming dynasty

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Emperor of the Great Ming
大明皇帝
Imperial
Portrait of the Jiajing Emperor (r. 1521–1567) wearing a robe adorned with twelve dragons. The sun and moon drawn on the shoulders form the character ming ('bright'), the name of the dynasty.[1] National Palace Museum, Taipei.
Details
StyleYour Majesty, His Majesty the Emperor
First monarch
Last monarch
Formation
  • 1368
Abolition
  • 1644 (Ming dynasty)
  • 1662 (Southern Ming)
Residence
AppointerHereditary

The emperors of the Ming dynasty, who were all members of the House of Zhu, ruled over China proper from 1368 to 1644 during the late imperial era of China (221 BC – 1912). Members of the Ming dynasty continued to rule a series of rump states in southern China, commonly known as the Southern Ming, until 1662; the Ming dynasty followed the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty and preceded the Manchu-led Qing dynasty.

The Ming dynasty was founded by the peasant rebel leader Zhu Yuanzhang, known as the Hongwu Emperor. The longest-reigning emperor of the dynasty was the Wanli Emperor (r. 1572–1620), who ruled for 48 years; the shortest was his successor, the Taichang Emperor, who ruled for only 29 days in 1620. The youngest ruler at the time of his ascension was Emperor Yingzong, who was only 9 years old, while the oldest ruler at the time of his death was the Hongwu Emperor, who died at the age of 71.[2]

The emperor of the Ming dynasty, following a practice established in the Zhou dynasty, was known as the "Son of Heaven" (天子; Tianzi).[3] He was seen as the intermediary between humans and heaven and was responsible for conducting numerous rituals to honor the supreme deities who safeguarded the empire, including the heavens, the earth, and the imperial ancestors.[4] Additionally, he participated in various ceremonies to commemorate significant events in both his own life and that of the empire, such as the promotion of an heir, a concubine, the granting of fiefs, the reception of envoys, and the metropolitan examinations. During his daily audiences, his subjects were expected to demonstrate their submission by prostrating themselves before him.[5] However, in reality, the majority of decisions were made by the Grand Secretariat and the ministries.[6] When he traveled, he was accompanied by an impressive entourage and protected by his imperial guard.[7]

Of sixteen Ming emperors, fourteen resided in the Forbidden City, a 72 ha (180-acre) complex of palaces and buildings in Beijing. Prior to 1420, the emperors' residence was located in a similar complex in Nanjing.[8]

Background

[edit]
See also: History of the Ming dynasty and Government of the Ming dynasty
  • The Hongwu Emperor (top left), who proclaimed the Ming dynasty on 23 January 1368, and his son, the Yongle Emperor (top right), whose reign is often seen as the "second founding" of the Ming dynasty since he reversed many of his father's policies.[9]
  • The Wanli Emperor (bottom left), the longest-reigning Ming emperor,[2][10] and his son, the Taichang Emperor (bottom right), whose reign was the shortest in the history of the Ming dynasty, in contrast to his father's longest reign.[2]

The Ming dynasty was founded by Zhu Yuanzhang (the Hongwu Emperor), who was one of the leaders of the Red Turban peasant rebellion. Despite humble beginnings, he successfully built his own state, defeated other rebel leaders, and forced the last Yuan emperor to flee China proper. On Chinese New Year in 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang declared the establishment of a new imperial dynasty titled Great Ming (大明; Da Ming) and declared himself its first emperor.[11]

The emperors of the Ming dynasty inherited the throne according to the principle of primogeniture. According to the Hongwu Emperor's Ancestral Instructions, the successor to the throne was always the eldest son of the emperor and empress, or his heir, followed by younger sons of the empress. However, sons of concubines were excluded from the line of succession. It was a strict rule that conservative officials strongly insisted on following. Even the Wanli Emperor, who for two decades tried to appoint his third son, Zhu Changxun, as crown prince, was eventually forced to step down and appoint his eldest son, the future Taichang Emperor.[12] The only successful violator of the succession rules was the Yongle Emperor, the third emperor of the dynasty. He gained power in a three-year civil war against his nephew, the Jianwen Emperor.[13]

The Wanli Emperor on his state barge as depicted in the Return Clearing (National Palace Museum, Taiwan). Imperial journeys were used to impress the population with the emperor's power and wealth, and he travelled in luxury with a vast entourage. Journeys by water provided a useful opportunity for inspecting the upkeep of the all-important water-transport system and the maintenance of irrigation works and dykes.[14]

The emperor, or huangdi, was the supreme head of state, a tradition that dated back to the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and was continued by the Ming dynasty.[15] In theory, he held ultimate authority over all officials and generals, and the entire country was expected to obey his decrees. However, this power came at a cost, as the Hongwu Emperor tightly controlled his power through numerous purges.[16] As the dynasty progressed, the successors of the Hongwu Emperor lacked his decisiveness and were constrained by traditional limitations.[17] The emperor was not expected to make independent decisions regarding the direction of the country.[18] Instead, memoranda and demands were presented to them with proposed solutions. The emperor's role was to either confirm the submitted proposals or negotiate an alternative solution with the submitters.[18] Similarly, the emperors appointed officials and generals based on recommendations from the Ministry of Personnel or the Ministry of War. In the case of high dignitaries, the ruler was given a choice between two to three candidates.[18] Major issues were typically discussed at official audiences or informal meetings, and it was necessary to reach a broad consensus among court dignitaries before making any significant decisions.[17]

During the reigns of the Hongwu Emperor and his successors, China generally experienced a period of economic growth and political stability.[19] However, in the 17th century, a combination of climate changes and poor economic policies led to widespread famines and epidemics. As a result, the government's authority weakened, and numerous uprisings erupted. In 1644, the rebel army successfully captured Beijing, leading to the suicide of the last Ming emperor, the Chongzhen Emperor (r. 1627–1644).[20] The leader of the uprising, Li Zicheng, declared himself the emperor of the new Shun dynasty. To defeat the rebels, Wu Sangui, the last Ming general in the northeast, invited the Manchu-led Eight Banners of the Qing dynasty to enter the Central Plains. The Manchus then occupied northern China that same year.[21]

Despite losing control of the north, members of the Ming imperial family continued to rule over southern China. However, they were gradually pushed out by the Manchus until the last Ming emperor, Zhu Youlang, was executed in 1662 in Burma. Later historians referred to the emperors of the Ming regimes in southern China as the rulers of the Southern Ming dynasty.[22]

List of emperors

[edit]

The emperor's personal name (名字; Mingzi) was tabooed after his ascension to the throne. He was referred to and addressed with titles of varying degrees of formality—Your Majesty (陛下; Bixia), His Majesty the Emperor (皇上 Huangshang, or simply 上 Shang).[23] After death, the emperor received an honorary posthumous name (謚號; Shihao), usually consisting of nineteen written characters for emperors of the Ming dynasty; however, the founder of the dynasty, the Hongwu Emperor, was honored with a name of twenty-three written characters. Another name given posthumously was the temple name (廟號; Miaohao), and along with the posthumous name, they were used for worship in the Imperial Ancestral Temple.[24] Due to the repetition of the same temple and posthumous names for emperors of different dynasties, the dynastic name is used as a differentiator when necessary. For example, the Hongwu Emperor is frequently referred to as "Ming Taizu".[25]

Era name (年號; Nianhao), or "reign title", was chosen at the beginning of the emperor's reign to reflect the political, economic, and/or social landscapes at the time.[25] During the Ming dynasty, except for Emperor Yingzong, the emperors only declared one era name during their reign, whereas emperors of previous dynasties usually had multiple era names. As a result, the emperors of the Ming dynasty were commonly referred to by their single era names.[26]

Ming dynasty (1368–1644)

[edit]
Personal name Portrait Lifespan Reign Posthumous name Temple name Era name Years
Zhu Yuanzhang
[27] 		朱元璋 Portrait of the Hongwu Emperor 21 October 1328
– 24 June 1398 		23 January 1368
– 24 June 1398 		Emperor Kaitian Xingdao Zhaoji Liji Dasheng Zhishen Renwen Yiwu Junde Chenggong Gao 開天行道肇紀立極大聖至神仁文義武俊德成功高皇帝 Taizu 太祖 Hongwu 洪武 23 January 1368
– 5 February 1399[a]
Zhu Yunwen
[30] 		朱允炆 Portrait of the Jianwen Emperor 5 December 1377
– 13 July 1402 		30 June 1398
– 13 July 1402 		Emperor Gongmin Hui 恭閔惠皇帝 Huizong[b] 惠宗 Jianwen 建文 6 February 1399
– 13 July 1402
Zhu Di
[32] 		朱棣 Portrait of the Yongle Emperor 2 May 1360
– 12 August 1424 		17 July 1402
– 12 August 1424 		Emperor Qitian Hongdao Gaoming Zhaoyun Shengwu Shengong Chunren Zhixiao Wen 啓天弘道高明肇運聖武神功純仁至孝文皇帝 Chengzu[c] 成祖 Yongle 永樂 23 January 1403
– 19 January 1425
Zhu Gaochi
[33] 		朱高熾 Portrait of the Hongxi Emperor 16 August 1378
– 29 May 1425 		12 August 1424
– 29 May 1425 		Emperor Jingtian Tidao Chuncheng Zhide Hongwen Qinwu Zhangsheng Daxiao Zhao 敬天體道純誠至德弘文欽武章聖達孝昭皇帝 Renzong 仁宗 Hongxi 洪熙 20 January 1425
– 7 February 1426
Zhu Zhanji
[34] 		朱瞻基 Portrait of the Xuande Emperor 16 March 1399
– 31 January 1435 		29 May 1425
– 31 January 1435 		Emperor Xiantian Chongdao Yingming Shensheng Qinwen Zhaowu Kuanren Chunxiao Zhang 憲天崇道英明神聖欽文昭武寬仁純孝章皇帝 Xuanzong 宣宗 Xuande 宣德 8 February 1426
– 17 January 1436
Zhu Qizhen
[35] 		朱祁鎮 Portrait of Emperor Yingzong 29 November 1427
– 23 February 1464 		31 January 1435
– 22 September 1449 		Emperor Fatian Lidao Renming Chengjing Zhaowen Xianwu Zhide Guangxiao Rui 法天立道仁明誠敬昭文憲武至德廣孝睿皇帝 Yingzong 英宗 Zhengtong 正統 18 January 1436
– 13 January 1450
11 February 1457
– 23 February 1464 		Tianshun[d] 天順 11 February 1457
– 26 January 1465
Zhu Qiyu
[37] 		朱祁鈺 Portrait of the Jingtai Emperor 21 September 1428
– 14 March 1457 		22 September 1449
– 11 February 1457 		Emperor Gongren Kangding Jing 恭仁康定景皇帝 Daizong 代宗 Jingtai 景泰 14 January 1450
– 11 February 1457
Zhu Jianshen
[38] 		朱見濡 Portrait of the Jingtai Emperor 9 December 1447
– 9 September 1487 		23 February 1464
– 9 September 1487 		Emperor Jitian Ningdao Chengming Renjing Chongwen Suwu Hongde Shengxiao Chun 繼天凝道誠明仁敬崇文肅武宏德聖孝純皇帝 Xianzong 憲宗 Chenghua 成化 27 January 1465
– 13 January 1488
Zhu Youcheng
[39] 		朱祐樘 Portrait of the Hongzhi Emperor 30 July 1470
– 8 June 1505 		9 September 1487
– 8 June 1505 		Emperor Datian Mingdao Chuncheng Zhongzheng Shengwen Shenwu Zhiren Dade Jing 達天明道純誠中正聖文神武至仁大德敬皇帝 Xiaozong 孝宗 Hongzhi 弘治 14 January 1488
– 23 January 1506
Zhu Houzhao
[40] 		朱厚照 Portrait of the Zhengde Emperor 26 October 1491
– 20 April 1521 		8 June 1505
– 20 April 1521 		Emperor Chengtian Dadao Yingsu Ruizhe Zhaode Xiangong Hongwen Sixiao Yi 承天達道英肅睿哲昭德顯功弘文思孝毅皇帝 Wuzong Zhengde 正德 27 January 1522
– 27 January 1522
Zhu Houcong
[41] 		朱厚熜 Portrait of the Jiajing Emperor 16 September 1507
– 23 January 1567 		27 May 1521
– 23 January 1567 		Emperor Qintian Lüdao Yingyi Shengshen Xuanwen Guangwu Hongren Daxiao Su 欽天履道英毅聖神宣文廣武洪仁大孝肅皇帝 Shizong 世宗 Jiajing 嘉靖 28 January 1522
– 8 February 1567
Zhu Zaiji
[42] 		朱載坖 Portrait of the Longqing Emperor 4 March 1537
– 5 July 1572 		23 January 1567
– 5 July 1572 		Emperor Qitian Longdao Yuanyi Kuanren Xianwen Guangwu Chunde Hongxiao Zhuang 契天隆道淵懿寬仁顯文光武純德弘孝莊皇帝 Muzong 穆宗 Longqing 隆慶 9 February 1567
– 1 February 1573
Zhu Yijun
[43] 		朱翊鈞 Portrait of the Wanli Emperor 4 September 1563
– 18 August 1620 		5 July 1572
– 18 August 1620 		Emperor Fantian Hedao Zhesu Dunjian Guangwen Zhangwu Anren Zhixiao Xian 範天合道哲肅敦簡光文章武安仁止孝顯皇帝 Shenzong 神宗 Wanli 萬曆 2 February 1573
– 27 August 1620
Zhu Changluo
[44] 		朱常洛 Portrait of the Taichang Emperor 28 August 1582
– 26 September 1620 		28 August
– 26 September 1620 		Emperor Chongtian Qidao Yingrui Gongchun Xianwen Jingwu Yuanren Yixiao Zhen 崇天契道英睿恭純憲文景武淵仁懿孝貞皇帝 Guangzong 光宗 Taichang 泰昌 28 August 1620
– 21 January 1621
Zhu Youjiao
[45] 		朱由校 Portrait of the Tianqi Emperor 23 December 1605
– 30 September 1627 		26 September 1620
– 30 September 1627 		Datian Chandao Dunxiao Duyou Zhangwen Xiangwu Jingmu Zhuangqin Zhe 達天闡道敦孝篤友章文襄武靖穆莊勤悊皇帝 Xizong 熹宗 Tianqi 天啟 22 January 1621
– 4 February 1628
Zhu Youjian
[46] 		朱由檢 6 February 1611
– 25 April 1644 		2 October 1627
– 25 April 1644 		Emperor Zhuanglie Min 莊烈愍皇帝 Sizong 思宗 Chongzhen 崇禎 5 February 1628
– 25 April 1644

Southern Ming (1644–1662)

[edit]
Title before accession
Personal name 		Lifespan Title
Reign 		Posthumous name Temple name Era name Years
Prince of Fu
Zhu Yousong
[47] 		朱由崧 5 September 1607
– 23 May 1646 		Emperor
19 June 1644
– 15 June 1645 		Emperor Chutian Chengdao Chengjing Yingzhe Zuanwen Beiwu Xuanren Duxiao Jian 處天承道誠敬英哲纘文備武宣仁度孝簡皇帝 Anzong 安宗 Hongguang 弘光 28 January 1645
– 17 August 1645
Prince of Lu (Luh)[e]
Zhu Changfang
[48] 		朱常淓 1608
– 23 May 1646 		Regent
1 July
– 6 July 1645 		— — regent Lu (Luh)[f] 潞王監國 1 July
– 6 July 1645
Prince of Tang
Zhu Yujian
[49] 		朱聿鍵 25 May 1602
– 6 October 1646 		Emperor
18 August 1645
– 6 October 1646 		Emperor Peitian Zhidao Hongyi Sumu Siwen Liewu Minren Guangxiao Xiang 配天至道弘毅肅穆思文烈武敏仁廣孝襄皇帝 Shaozong 紹宗 Longwu 隆武 18 August 1645
– 4 February 1647
Prince of Lu (Lou)[e]
Zhu Yihai
[50] 		朱以海 6 July 1618
– 23 December 1662 		Regent
7 September 1645
– 1653 		— — regent Lu[f] 魯監國 16 February 1646
– 1653
Prince of Tang
Zhu Yuyue
[51] 		朱聿鐭 1605
– 20 January 1647 		Emperor
11 December 1646
– 20 January 1647 		— — Shaowu[g] 紹武 —
Prince of Gui
Zhu Youlang
[52] 		朱由榔 1 November 1623
– 1 June 1662 		Emperor
24 December 1646
– 1 June 1662 		Emperor Yingtian Tuidao Minyi Gongjian Jingwen Weiwu Liren Kexiao Kuang 應天推道敏毅恭檢經文緯武禮仁克孝匡皇帝 Zhaozong 昭宗 Yongli 永曆 5 February 1647
– 1 June 1662

Posthumously recognized emperors

[edit]
Personal name Lifespan Posthumous name Temple name Year recognized Notes
Zhu Bailiu [zh] 朱百六 Unknown lifespan Emperor Xuan 玄皇帝 Dezu 德祖 1368 Great-great-grandfather of the Hongwu Emperor[53]
Zhu Sijiu [zh] 朱四九 Unknown lifespan Emperor Heng 恆皇帝 Yizu 懿祖 Great-grandfather of the Hongwu Emperor[53]
Zhu Chuyi [zh] 朱初一 Unknown lifespan Emperor Yu 裕皇帝 Xizu 熙祖 Grandfather of the Hongwu Emperor[53]
Zhu Shizhen 朱世珍 1281–1344 Emperor Chun 淳皇帝 Renzu 仁祖 Father of the Hongwu Emperor[53]
Zhu Biao 朱標 10 October 1355 –
17 May 1392 		Emperor Xiaokang 孝康皇帝 Xingzong 興宗 1399
1644 		Son of the Hongwu Emperor, father of the Jianwen Emperor, who posthumously recognized him as emperor.[h][56]
Zhu Youyuan 朱祐杬 22 July 1476 –
13 July 1519 		Emperor Zhitian Shoudao Hongde Yuanren Kuanmu Chunsheng Gongjian Jinwen Xian 知天守道洪德淵仁寬穆純聖恭簡敬文獻皇帝 Ruizong 睿宗 1538 Father of the Jiajing Emperor[57]
Zhu Changxun 朱常洵 22 February 1586 –
2 March 1641 		Emperor Mutian Fudao Zhenchun Suzhe Xiuwen Xianwu Shengjing Renyi Xiao 慕天敷道貞純肅哲修文顯武聖敬仁毅孝皇帝 Gongzong 恭宗 1644 Father of the Hongguang Emperor, son of the Wanli Emperor[58]
Zhu Yuwen [zh] 朱宇溫 1490–1560 Emperor Hui 惠皇帝 — 1645 Great-great-grandfather of the Longwu and Shaowu emperors[59]
Zhu Zhouyong [zh] 朱宙栐 1538–1564 Emperor Shun 順皇帝 — Great-grandfather of the Longwu and Shaowu emperors[59]
Zhu Shuohuang [zh] 朱碩熿 Unknown – 24 January 1630 Emperor Duan 端皇帝 — Grandfather of the Longwu and Shaowu emperors[59]
Zhu Qisheng [zh] 朱器墭 Unknown – 1629 Emperor Xuan 宣皇帝 — Father of the Longwu and Shaowu emperors[59]
Zhu Cilang 朱慈烺 26 February 1629 –
June 1644 		Emperor Dao 悼皇帝 — 1646 Son of the Chongzhen Emperor[60]
Zhu Changying 朱常瀛 25 April 1597 –
21 December 1645 		Emperor Titian Changdao Zhuangyi Wenhong Xingwen Xuanwu Renzhi Chengxiao Duan 體天昌道莊毅溫弘興文宣武仁智誠孝端皇帝 Lizong 禮宗 Father of the Yongli Emperor, son of the Wanli Emperor[58]

Timeline

[edit]
Zhu YoulangZhu YuyueZhu YihaiZhu ChangfangZhu YujianZhu YousongChongzhen EmperorTianqi EmperorTaichang EmperorWanli EmperorLongqing EmperorJiajing EmperorZhengde EmperorHongzhi EmperorChenghua EmperorEmperor Yingzong of MingJingtai EmperorEmperor Yingzong of MingXuande EmperorHongxi EmperorYongle EmperorJianwen EmperorHongwu EmperorSouthern MingMing dynasty

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ After the Jianwen Emperor died in a palace fire, the Yongle Emperor ascended to the throne. In an attempt to diminish the legacy of his predecessor, he chose not to give him a temple name.[28] Additionally, he retroactively abolished the Jianwen era and extended the Hongwu era in its place.[29]
  2. ^ The temple name Huizong was given to the Jianwen Emperor long after his reign by Zhu Yousong, the Prince of Fu, in 1644.[31]
  3. ^ Following his death, the Yongle Emperor was given the temple name Taizong (太宗) by his successor the Hongxi Emperor, but this was changed on 3 October 1538 to Chengzu (成祖) by the Jiajing Emperor. The latter has been used since its bestowment.[31]
  4. ^ Emperor Yingzong was captured by the Mongols in 1449, and his brother, the Jingtai Emperor, ascended to the throne. After the Jingtai Emperor was deposed in a palace coup in 1457, Emperor Yingzong returned to the throne and declared a new era, Tianshun.[36]
  5. ^ a b The two characters are both pronounced Lu but with different tones; to distinguish them in Roman script, one is usually kept as Lu and the other spelled differently. Luh is from Cambridge History of China; Lou is from A.C. Moule's Rulers of China (1957). When one irregular spelling is used, the other is kept as regular (Lu). The two systems are distinct and not used simultaneously.
  6. ^ a b Not an actual era name, but used in place of an era name and served a similar function.
  7. ^ The era name Shaowu was originally planned to supersede Longwu in 1647, but the Shaowu Emperor's reign ended before the era name was put into effective use.
  8. ^ After overthrowing the Jianwen Emperor in 1402, the Yongle Emperor abolished Zhu Biao's emperor status.[54] In 1644, Zhu Biao was again promoted to the status of emperor.[55]

References

[edit]

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^ Brook (2010), p. 12.
  2. ^ a b c Twitchett & Mote (1998), p. 16.
  3. ^ Paludan (1998), pp. 6–7.
  4. ^ "The Emperor in the Cosmic Order". Asia for Educators (AFE), Weatherhead East Asian Institute at Columbia University.
  5. ^ Duhalde, Marcelo (8 August 2018). "Life inside the Forbidden City. Chapter 3". South China Morning Post.
  6. ^ Ch'ien (1982), p. 96.
  7. ^ Paludan (1998), pp. 177, 180.
  8. ^ "Forbidden City". Encyclopædia Britannica.
  9. ^ Atwell (2002), p. 84.
  10. ^ Melvin, Shelia (7 September 2011). "China's Reluctant Emperor". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 3 December 2021.
  11. ^ Dillon (2016), p. 444.
  12. ^ Huang (1997).
  13. ^ Huang (1997), p. 175.
  14. ^ Paludan (1998), p. 180.
  15. ^ Mote (2003), p. 98.
  16. ^ Ch'ien (1982), p. 91.
  17. ^ a b Ch'ien (1982), p. 93.
  18. ^ a b c Hucker (1966), p. 41.
  19. ^ Fan (2016), p. 97.
  20. ^ Paludan (1998), p. 187.
  21. ^ Atwell (1988), p. 639.
  22. ^ Dennerline (1985), pp. 824–825.
  23. ^ Twitchett & Mote 1998, p. 17; Wilkinson 2000, pp. 109–110.
  24. ^ Moule 1957, p. 106; Wilkinson 2018, pp. 288, 290–291; Twitchett & Mote 1998, p. 17.
  25. ^ a b Theobald, Ulrich (23 September 2011). "Chinese History – Names of Persons and Titles of Rulers". Chinaknowledge – a universal guide for China studies. Retrieved 10 July 2013.[better source needed]
  26. ^ Twitchett & Mote 1998, p. 17; Wilkinson 2000, pp. 294–295.
  27. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 381–392; Paludan 1998; Langlois 1988, pp. 107–181; Moule 1957, p. 106; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  28. ^ Goodrich & Fang (1976), p. 397.
  29. ^ Tsai (2002), p. 88.
  30. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 397–404; Paludan 1998, p. 163; Chan 1988, pp. 184–204; Moule 1957, p. 106; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  31. ^ a b Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  32. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 355–364; Paludan 1998, pp. 163–167; Chan 1988, pp. 205–275; Moule 1957, p. 107; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  33. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 338–340; Paludan 1998, pp. 167–169; Chan 1988, pp. 276–283; Moule 1957, p. 107; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  34. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 279–289; Paludan 1998, p. 169; Chan 1988, pp. 284–304; Moule 1957, p. 107; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  35. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 289–294; Paludan 1998, pp. 170–171; Twitchett & Grimm 1988, pp. 305–324, 339–342; Moule 1957, p. 107; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  36. ^ Paludan (1998), p. 171.
  37. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976; Paludan 1998, p. 171; Twitchett & Grimm 1988, pp. 325–338; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  38. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 298–304; Paludan 1998, pp. 173–174; Mote 1988, pp. 343–369; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  39. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 375–380; Paludan 1998, p. 174; Mote 1988, pp. 343–369; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  40. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 307–315; Paludan 1998, pp. 176–178; Geiss 1988a, pp. 403–439; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  41. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 315–322; Paludan 1998, pp. 178–180; Geiss 1988b, pp. 440–510; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  42. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 365–367; Paludan 1998, p. 180; Huang 1988, pp. 511–513; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  43. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 324–338; Paludan 1998, pp. 180–183; Huang 1988, pp. 511–517; Moule 1957, p. 109; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  44. ^ Kennedy 1943a, pp. 176–177; Paludan 1998, p. 183; Atwell 1988, pp. 590–594; Moule 1957, p. 109; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  45. ^ Kennedy 1943b, p. 190; Paludan 1998, pp. 183, 187; Atwell 1988, pp. 595–610; Moule 1957, p. 109; Wilkinson 2018, p. 886.
  46. ^ Kennedy 1943c, pp. 191–192; Paludan 1998, p. 187; Atwell 1988, pp. 611–636; Moule 1957, p. 109; Wilkinson 2018, p. 886.
  47. ^ Kennedy 1943d, pp. 195–196; Moule 1957, p. 109; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii.
  48. ^ Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii; Kerlouegan 2011, p. 51.
  49. ^ Kennedy 1943e, pp. 196–198; Moule 1957, p. 109; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii; Goodrich & Fang 1976, p. xxi.
  50. ^ Kennedy 1943g, pp. 180–182; Bo 2010, p. 543; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii.
  51. ^ Kennedy 1943e, pp. 196–198; Moule 1957, p. 109; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii.
  52. ^ Kennedy 1943f, pp. 193–195; Moule 1957, p. 109; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii; Goodrich & Fang 1976, p. xxi.
  53. ^ a b c d Zhang (1739), vol. 2.
  54. ^ Zhang 1739, vol. 115; Goodrich & Fang 1976, p. 347.
  55. ^ Qian (2016), vol. 7.
  56. ^ Zhang 1739, vol. 115; Qian 2016, vol. 7; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxii; Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 346–347.
  57. ^ Zhang 1739, vol. 115; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxii.
  58. ^ a b Qian 2016, vols. 7, 26; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxii.
  59. ^ a b c d Qian (2016), vols. 7, 26.
  60. ^ Qian 2016, vol. 26; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxii.

Works cited

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
  • Heer, Ph. de (1986). The Care-taker Emperor: Aspects of the Imperial Institution in Fifteenth-century China as Reflected in the Political History of the Reign of Chu Chʾi-yü. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9004078983.
[edit]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_emperors_of_the_Ming_dynasty&oldid=1262423840"